Democracy in Comparisons: USA & Indonesia
Democracy in Comparisons:
The United States of America and The Republic of Indonesia
Cindhi Cintokowati
Faculty of Economics and Business
Universitas Gadjah Mada
Indonesia
INTRODUCTION
Democracy literally means government by people. It is defined as a political system in which citizens enjoy a number of basic civil and political rights, and in which their most important political leaders are elected in free and fair elections and are accountable under a rule of law[1]. At 1863, Abraham Lincoln described democracy as a government of the people, by the people, and for the people in his speech. Democracy expects people to actively participate in political activity or public policy-making process. In ancient Greece society, people were able to directly participate in decision making process and made consensus since they were formed in small community. Nevertheless, the complexity of modern society makes those practices difficult to be implemented. Therefore, representative government emerged as a solution to maintain democracy system and to ensure that aspiration of its people still becomes the main concern of government. In democracy, the elected representatives tend to act for public benefit in order to generate public support for the next election.[2]
Democracy has many different forms such as parliamentary democracy, presidential democracy, liberal democracy, and so on. However, it has several common characteristics that can be elaborated as below:
- Participation by people is the heart of democracy. They may participate by electing their representatives (voting), joining politic party, doing communal political activity such as signing a petition or membership in public interest group, participating in protest activity, or any other form that enables them to demonstrate their aspiration.
- Separation of power into legislative, executive, and judicial branches to perform check and balances function.
- Governance will be conducted under the rule of law. Citizens have to be treated fairly and equally in the name of justice. Law force should be fair and independent.
- High commitment to protect human rights and basic rights of its citizens.
- Equality in legal, political, and economic. Every qualified individual has the same right and opportunity to be candidate and elected. The gap between social classes may indicate the effectiveness of government’s policy.
- Government has to guarantee the freedom of its citizens. Liberty of pursuing happiness, living their life, stating opinion, participating in an association, articulating interest, conducting religious activity, and others.
As democracy posses those characteristics stated above, it is viewed as the best government system so far since it is balancing the authority power in three separated branches and requiring participation from its people. Nevertheless, the implementation in each country can be different regarding to its social and political situation. Therefore, this essay tends to compare the implementation of democracy in The United States of America and The Republic of Indonesia. We may observe the uniqueness of democracy practice in The Republic of Indonesia where “monarchy” within democracy exists. It is related to special status given to Special Region of Yogyakarta which has special authorities’ consequences.
The comparative method chosen for several reasons below:
- We can identify the similarities and the differences to see wider range of political alternatives. Comparative method can help us to explain the combination of political events and institutions in different societies.
- Comparison is an effective tool to fully understand our own democracy. We may identify any shortcoming of our political system. Adopt democracy practice in another country that fit in our society’s beliefs, values, and conditions.
For simplification purpose, this essay will only compare democracy practice in United States of America during President Barrack Obama Period and The Republic of Indonesia during President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono 2ndPeriod – (2009 onward).
COMPARISONS:
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA AND THE REPUBLIC OF INDONESIA
The United States of America has been used Presidential Democracy as its government system. Meanwhile, the Republic of Indonesia, starting from 1999, has been used Pancasila Democracy. Pancasila is the ideology of the Republic of Indonesia which consists of five moral principals functioned as guidance in all aspect of life including political matter.
The democracy practice comparisons between the United States of America (America) and the Republic of Indonesia (Indonesia) can be explained based on each characteristic as follows:
- I. The Constitutional System
Both America and Indonesia set their government system in a written constitution. Another similarity regarding its implementation of federalism in which governmental power is divided into a national government and several states or provinces government. In America, the federal government often funded the states to build infrastructure or to conduct its governing role. However, the states do not have to accept it, yet if they do, they should meet the requirement set by federal government on how to spend the money. Meanwhile in Indonesia, central government routinely grants fund to provinces or lower level government based on their approved budget.
Another characteristic of democracy is separation of power. Both countries have divided its authority into executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The branch has to be operated by persons entirely distinct from the one whom operating the other two branches. This is to eliminate the possibility of overriding by particular party who exercise too powerful position. Executive branch is led by a President who acts as chief of state and head of government with five-year term in Indonesia and four-year term in America which limited to two full elected terms. In America, President is elected indirectly through an electoral college. In the other hand, President of Indonesia is directly elected by its people since 2004.
Legislative branch between two countries is slightly different. Congress which consists of the House of Representatives and the Senate hold legislative power in America. Members of both the House and the Senate are elected directly by the voters for two-year and six-year terms without limitation time to serve. The election of the Senate’s member is staggered so that one-third of its members comes up for (re)election every two years. Together, the House and the Senate can impeach, convict, and remove president or federal judges from their position. In turn, the president can veto any action conducted by Congress. It needs two-third vote of both chambers to override the veto. Thus, to exercise a policy, president and congress should cooperate and agree in each other. This is one of the reasons why policy making process often finds a deadlock in America. It is because the system has been designed to do so. Each branches designed to exercise its authority with supervision from other branches – cross controlling. However, Americans usually solve the deadlock by lobbying or putting together ad hoc to make public policy.
The significant difference between Indonesia and America regarding its legislative is that in Indonesia legislative consists of the People’s Representative Council (Indonesian: Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat, DPR, referred to the House of Representatives), the Regional Representatives Council (Indonesian: Dewan Perwakilan Daerah, DPD, referred to the Senate), and the People’s Consultative Assembly (Indonesian: Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat, MPR). The latter one is resembled from members of both first chambers. The members are directly elected by people. DPR has three main functions: legislative, budgeting, and oversight. Another characteristic is similar to America. President and DPR should cooperate in determining public policy. DPR can impeach president with requirement two-third vote from members who present in plenary session which the session should be attended by two-third of total members, and propose it to Constitutional Court. Later, Constitutional Court will hold a court session to decide whether the president can be impeached or not. Apparently, legislative in Indonesia is more powerful comparing to executive since President of Indonesia does not posses veto right like President of America does. Furthermore, President of Indonesia is reporting to DPR.
Judicial branch in Indonesia as well as in the America is hold by Federal courts and is chaired by Supreme Court. In Indonesia, sixty-member of Supreme Court are proposed by Judicial Commission to DPR and approved by president. The leader will be elected by the Supreme Court’s judges for five-year term with full two elected terms. Meanwhile in the America, president appointed all federal judges with the approval of a majority of Senate and they hold their position until death, resignation, or removal by Congress. The significant difference between the two countries is that in the America, Supreme Court exercises a prominent position. The litigiousness of Americans, in which they tend to solve dispute by filing lawsuit, gives the court a central role in America.
- II. Political Participation
Most of scholars agreed that voting turnout (the percentage of eligible people to vote actually do so) is an important indicator for democracy. Average of voting turnout in the America is lower than Indonesia that is 55%-60% for America and 73, 8% for Indonesia in 2009.[3] This can be triggered by several reasons:
- Unlike any other country, in America, the eligible citizen has to register themselves. Each state regulates voting registration with no list of residents. It might be causing a less convenience for voters. Furthermore, the identity of voter is not automatically transferred to other local government when they are moving out to other places. Thus, they need to manage administration by themselves.
- Americans only want to vote candidates whom fit with their idealism and whom they consider as a good leader who will bring prosperity and a better society. In the other hand, they could not find the ideal candidate to be voted.
- Election frequently hold in America causing Americans to make hundreds electoral decision.
- Since 2004, Indonesian people are having enthusiasm of what so called democratic process where people could participate directly to elect their president.
It is worth to be noted that Indonesia put consensus above voting for decision making process. This is as the implementation of fourth principal in Pancasila.
Another form of political participation is by joining a political party, public interest association, articulating interest, and so forth. In the United States of America, there are many political action committees (PACs) which not formally affiliated with any political party and spend money to influence the result of the election. PACs should be registered at Federal Election Commission and report its income and expenditures. PACs flourished as a result of amendments to the Federal Election Campaign Act that set a low limit for individual to financially support a particular party or candidate yet set a higher limit for organization to contribute. PACs mostly funded campaigns for the House and Senate particularly to candidates who will support legislation favor in its interest. PACs could contribute up to 28% of all campaigns fund. Therefore, they are included in a strong group whom able to influence the policy made by government.
In Indonesia, UU No. 8 tahun1985 regulates public interest organization commonly named Lembaga Sosial Masyarakat (LSM) and Organisasi Masyarakat (Ormas). This law required any LSM and Ormas to register to Kesbangpol. Since they are partially funded by government, they are required to report their income and expenditure to the government as accountability. Nevertheless, many of LSM and Ormas still unregistered and operates illegally. In 2010, there are 364 LSM and Ormas registered (source: depdagri.go.id). It is predicted that among those number, almost a half of them is not active.
- III. Political Party System
United States of America has a dual party system which consists of two major parties, Democrats and Republics. Though there are other parties, they only obtain a small percentage of voting. Democrat is known as the liberal side, while Republic as the conservative ones. In the old days, it had no significant difference between candidates from Democrats and Republics. However, it has changed recently as the differences getting meaningful. Democrats have greater support among minority such us women, blacks, and people with lower incomes and educations. In contrast, Republics is increasingly more conservative. It tends to put government intervention in some private areas such as people’s morals, religious, limiting abortion, etc. the point should be noted is that political party in America is so weak and closely regulated.
Unlike America, Republic of Indonesia has many politic parties participate in political stage. Each party brings their ideology yet never contrasted extremely. Two parties or more may form a coalition as an effort to win the election by gathering voters. From practices mentioned above, there some ambiguity of Indonesian political party behavior. It is indicating that Indonesian democracy has not found its established form.
“MONARCHY” WITHIN DEMOCRACY
Special Region of Yogyakarta is one of provinces in Indonesia located in Java Island. Yogyakarta used to be a Javanese kingdom consists of Kesultanan Yogyakarta headed by Sri Sultan Hamengku Buwono and Kadipaten Paku Alaman headed by Sri Paduka Paku Alaman. It was granted its special autonomy since Dutch occupation and remains until today. Constitution of Indonesia (Undang- Undang Dasar, UUD 1945) article 18, 18A, and 18B has guaranteed its special status. Later in 1950, the Formation of Special Region of Yogyakarta Act (UU No. 3 1950) strengthens its status as a special region that has an authority to regulate Yogyakarta by itself under the supervision of central government. No. 3 year 1950 Act also stated that although Sri Sultan Hamengku Buwono becomes the Governor, his royal family is not related with bureaucracy matter. This can be an explanation that Yogyakarta is not a constitutional monarchy.[4]
The consequence of special region status is that Sri Sultan Hamengku Buwono will automatically appointed as the Governor of Yogyakarta and Sri Paduka Paku Alaman as a Vice Governor of Yogyakarta. Governor acts as the head of Region and the head of Regional Government. However, their term should be extended by President in specified time. This means that Yogyakarta has never elected its Governor and Vice Governor through election which theoreticallybreached the heart of democracy. Another special arrangement for Yogyakarta is that Sri Sultan Hamengku Buwono and Sri Paduka Paku Alaman directly responsible to President of Indonesia, while other Provinces Government is responsible to Regional People’s Representative Council (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah, DPRD). Currently, Yogyakarta is led by Sri Sultan Hamengku Buwono X and Sri Paduka Paku Alaman IX.
The first democratic process in Yogyakarta was in 1951 when people indirectly elected their representatives at Yogyakarta’s legislative for the first time and continues afterward.[5] Therefore, we may conclude that the uniqueness of Yogyakarta relies on its Governor and Vice Governor position, while any other legislative and judicial structure is remain the same as the rest of provinces in Indonesia.
This situation has become a debatable issue where pros argue that the special status has been guaranteed since centuries and Sultan has become a symbol to preserve Javanese culture, beliefs, and values. Furthermore, Indonesian people should remember history when Sri Sultan Hamengku Buwono IX helped Indonesia to achieve its independence and declared to unite with Indonesia. In the other hand, the cons argue that it breached democracy and eliminated an opportunity for common people to lead Yogyakarta. They want Yogyakarta to conduct governor election according to Regional Government Act.
In July 2007, Sri Sultan Hamengku Buwono X stated in his speech that he would not take Governor Position in future years after his period ends in 2008. This statement triggers opinions from politic scientist as well as politic figure. Some stated that Sri Sultan Hamengku Buwono X indeed did not necessary to involve in governing activity. However, Sri Sultan Hamengku Buwono X should become a symbol (similar function as Britain monarchy) and government should guarantee royal’s expenditures budget. Others said that Governor Election would only violent the Special Status of Yogyakarta. While the common people still perceived Sri Sultan as the King that should be obeyed.
In 2008, Sri Sultan Hamengku Buwono X was willing to extend his period until October 9, 2011. Currently, draft of Special Region of Yogyakarta Act has been finished and discussed in DPR. Corresponding to this issue, the Minister of Internal Affairs provides three options: (1) Sri Sultan Hamengku Buwono X period as Governor and Pakualam as Vice Governor will be extended until draft of Special Region of Yogyakarta Act legally enforced, (2) Sri Sultan Hamengku Buwono X period as Governor and Pakualam as Vice Governor will be extended for five years. Later on, the implementation will be accorded to Special Region of Yogyakarta Act, (3) Sri Sultan Hamengku Buwono X period as Governor and Pakualam as Vice Governor will be extended for unlimited period. Nevertheless, the authority pertain to this issue relies on President of Republic of Indonesia.
DEMOCRACY PROBLEMS
- Voting is a form of people participation where the majority voice will decide. This may trigger a threat when the majority ignoring minority’s rights, freedom, or interest. In that case, democracy cannot accommodate minority’s aspiration and turn out to be majority rule (Madison, and J.S. Mill).
- The elected representatives should be trustee who behaves in public interest instead of delegation who behaves in their group interest or constituent.
- Corruption and bribery can be the major enemy of any government form including democracy. In a condition where corruption has deeply rooted in society even government bodies; it will become a tremendous threat in exercising public policy for people benefits. The separation of power is no longer effective since rich parties may buy out justice or influence policy making process to behave in their interest. Manipulation can be made easily.
CONCLUSION
- Implementation of democracy different among countries regarding to the difference of its social, politic, and economic condition. Democracy ideally should accommodate any aspiration of its people especially at the bottom one. Form of democracy must be suited with society perceived values and beliefs. Moreover, education degree of its people also plays an important role in exercising a good democracy practice.
- In Yogyakarta case, people should be involved in deciding issues related to its special region status. People aspiration is the main concern.
- A good democracy practice requires an active participation of each individual.
REFERENCES
A.Almond, Gabriel, et.al. 2008. Comparative Politics Today: A World View 9th ed. United States: Pearson Longman.
Joyokusumo in Kedaulatan Rakyat newspaper July 03, 2007
Rasyid, Muhammad Ryaas. 1997. Pemerintahan: Tinjauan dari Segi Etika dan Kepemimpinan. Jakarta: PT. Yarsif Watampone.
Republika website retirieved from republica.com December 08th, 2022 at 08.41pm. Article: Banyak Ormas dan LSM Ilegal. Monday, November 14, 2011.
Sumardjan, Selo. 1962. Social Changes in Jogjakarta. New York: Cornell University Press
[1]A. Almond, Gabriel, et.al. Comparative Politics Today
[2] Rasyid, Muhammad Ryaas. 1997. Makna Pemerintahan: Tinjauan dari segi etika dan kepemimpinan. PT. Yarsif Watampone, Jakarta. hal 31-42
[3] Data taken from Election Commission (Komisi Pemilihan Umum, KPU) and A. Almond, Gabriel et.al. Comparative Politics Today
[4] Joyokusumo in Kedaulatan Rakyat newspaper July 03, 2007
[5] Sumardjan, Selo. 1962. Social Changes in Jogjakarta. New York: Cornell University Press
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